Rangkuman Bahasa Inggris 2

DOSEN : RICKY PERDANA

Disusun oleh :

Cantika Salma Salsabila (11216521)

1EA12

FAKULTAS EKONOMI

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA

2017

 

 DAFTAR ISI

BAB	Pokok Bahasan	Indikator Keberhasilan
1	·      Some and Any ·      Much and Many ·      A lot of and A few	Mahasiswa dapat membedakan penggunaan Some, Any, Many, Much, A lot of , and A few
2	·       Article a, an, the ·        no article	Mahasiswa memahami penggunaan Articles dalam kalimat
3	·      Active and Passive sentence in Present form ·      Present Simple, Present Continuous,Present perfect	Mahasiswa dapat memahami penggunaan kalimat aktif dan pasif bentuk Present
4	·      Active and Passive sentence in Past form ·      Past Simple,Past Continuous, Past Perfect	Mahasiswa dapat memahami penggunaan kalimat aktif dan pasif bentuk Past
5	·      Indefinite Pronoun  (some-,  any-, no-) ·      Reflexive Pronoun	Mahasiswa  lebih memahami penggunaan Indefinite Pronoun (Some-, Any-, no-)
6	·      Have Something Done ·      Causative  Have	Mahasiswa  memahami perbedaan Have Something Done dan Causative Have
7	·      Determiner: all, each, every, few, little	·      Mahasiswa memahami penggunaan Determiner
8	Question tag	Mahasiswa mengetahui cara membentuk Question Tag
9	·      So and Such ·      Third Conditional	Mahasiiswa memahami penggunaan Third Conditional dalam kalimat
10	Kuis	·      Kuis mengenai pokok bahasan yang sudah dibahas sebelumnya
11	Direct and Indirect Speech bentuk Present: ·      Present Simple,Present Continuous, Present Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous	Mahasiswa lebih memahami penggunaan kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung dalam bentuk Present
12	Direct and Indirect Speech bentuk Past: ·      Past Simple ·      Past Perfect	Mahasiswa lebih memahami penggunaan kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung dalam bentuk Past
13	·      Direct and Indirect Speech bentuk Future: ·      Future,Future Continuous ·      Direct and Indirect Speech bentuk kalimat Imperative	Mahasiswa lebih memahami penggunaan kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung dalam bentuk Future dan penggunaan kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung bentuk Imperative
14	Direct and Indirect bentuk kalimat pertanyaan: ·      Present Simple,Simple Past, Present Perfect,Present continuous,Future, Future Continuous	Mahasiswa lebih memahami penggunaan kalimat langsung dan tidak langsung dalam bentuk pertanyaan

CHAPTER 1

Difference between “Some” and “Any”

o  “Some” is used in positive statements.

o  “Any” is used in negative statements and questions:

Example :

ü I want some bread.

ü I don’t want any bread.

ü Do we have any bread in the house?

ü I have some information for you about flights to Paris.

ü I don't have any information for you about flights to Paris.

ü We met some friends for drinks after work yesterday.

ü I didn't see any friends there on Thursday.

ü I think he will have some time to speak to you today.

ü I don't think he will have any time to speak to you today.

o  Exception to the rule:

“Some” can be used in questions if you are offering something to someone, or asking for something:

Example :

ü Would you like some bread?

ü Can I have some extra ketchup for my fries, please?

o  Only use “some” and “any” with uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns:

Example :

ü She wants some water. (water = uncountable noun)

ü He hasn’t received any e-mails yet. (e-mails = plural countable noun)

Difference between “Much” and “Many”

o  Much and Many are mainly used in negative sentences and questions.

They are not common in affirmative sentences though still possible.

Much is used with uncountable nouns.

Many is used with plural countable nouns.

Countable nouns	Uncountable nouns
Most nouns are countable nouns, or count nouns. They are called countable nouns because they refer to people or things that can be counted.	Some nouns are called uncountable nouns or non-count nouns. They are called uncountable nouns because they are words for things we cannot count.
Chair  Apple Dress Egg House Hotel Magazine Picture Product Table	Chocolate Cream Tea Heat Food Milk Sand Sugar Wind Snow

Examples :

o  Much for uncountable nouns

·      I don’t have much time

·      He doesn’t need much money

·      Does it use much electricity?

o  Many for countable nouns

·      There aren’t many chairs in the room

·      I don’t have many friends

·      Do you think many people will go?

Difference between “a lot of” and “a few”

o  A lot of

A lot of is used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used with countable or uncountable nouns.

Example :

·      There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)

·      I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)

·      I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)

·      We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)

o  A Few

We use a few to suggest a small quantity or not much of something.
A few is used with countable nouns (= some; not many)

Example :

·      There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)

·      I have a few crazy friends. (Countable noun)

While Few usually have negative meanings, especially when used with very.

·      He is sad because he has few friends. (Countable noun)

·      There are few honest politicians. (Countable noun)

CHAPTER 2

Article a, an, the

o  Indefinite article = a/an

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.

·      the = definite article

·      a/an = indefinite article

The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group.

Example :

·      Let's read the book                         it mean a specific book.

Let's read a book         it mean any book rather than a specific book.

·      I just saw the most popular movie of the year.      " There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular"

A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group.

Example :

·      I would like to go see a movie.      Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:

·      "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.

·      "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.

·      "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...

·       a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog

·       an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan

·       a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle

·       an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour

·       a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse

·       In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.

o  Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group.

Example:

·      "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.

·      "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

·      "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

CHAPTER 3

Active and Passive sentence in Present form

1.    SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE/PRESENT TENSE

	Active	Passive
Positive (+)	Subject + V1(s/es) + O	O + To be + V3 + By + S
Negative (-)	Subject + Do/Does + Not + V1 + O	O + To be + Not + V3 + By + S
Interrogative (?)	Do/Does + Subject + V1 + O	To be + O + V3 + By + S

Example:

·      Active = I wear a black jacket
Passive = a black jacket is worn by me

·      Pasive = I am loved by her
Active = She love me

·      Active = Syaila makes an omlete

Pasive = an omelete is made by Syaila

·      Active = Does she read a book?
Passive = Is a book read by her

2.    PRESENT CONTINOUS

	Active	Passive
Positive (+)	Subject + To be + Ving + O	O + To be + Being + V3 + By + S
Negative (-)	Subject + To be + Not + Ving + O	O + To be + Not + Being + V3 + By + S
Interrogative (?)	To be + Subject + Ving + O	To be + O + Being + V3 + By + S

Example:

·      Active = My mother is cooking a dinner for me
Passive = A dinner is being cooked by my mother for me

·      Active = Nabilla is making an omelete
Passive = an omelete is being made by Nabilla

·      Pasive = The wedding party is being celebrated by my parents
Active = My parents are celebrating the wedding party

·      Active = Is my mother cooking a dinner for me?
Passive = Is a dinner being cooked by my mother for me?

3.    PRESENT PERFECT

	Active	Passive
Positive (+)	Subject + Has/Have + V3 + O	O + Has/Have + Been + V3 + By + S
Negative (-)	Subject + Has/Have + Not + V3 + O	O + Has/Have + Not + Been + V3 + By + S
Interrogative (?)	Has/Have + Subject + V3 + O	Has/Have + O + Been + V3 + By + S

Example:

·      Active = I have finished the home work
Passive = The home work has been finished by me

·      Active = Livya has made a cake

Passive = a cake has been made by Livya

·      Active = Have I finished the home work?
Passive = Has the home work been finished by me?

CHAPTER 4

Active and Passive sentence in Past form

Simple Past Tense
was,were+3rd verb
Active Voice		Passive Voice
She finished work.		Work was finished by her.
She did not finish work.		Work was not finished by her.
Did she finish work?		Was work finished by her?
Past Continuous Tense
was,were+being+3rd verb
Active Voice		Passive Voice
He was revising his books.		His books were being revised by him.
He was not revising his books.		His books were not being revised by him.
Was he revising his books?		Were his books being revised by him?
Past Perfect Tense
had+been+3rd verb
Active Voice	Passive Voice
I had completed the assignment.	The assignment had been completed by me.
I had not completed the assignment.	The assignment had not been completed by me.
Had I completed the assignment?	Had the assignment been completed by me?

CHAPTER 5

Indefinite Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that is used to take the place of a noun. They make sentences shorter and easier to say.

An indefinite pronoun is a word that takes the place of names of persons.

Here is a list of indefinite pronouns:

	PEOPLE	THINGS	PLACES
Some-	Someone Somebody	Something	Somewhere
Any-	Anyone Anybody	Anything	Anywhere
No-	No one Nobody	Nothing	Nowhere
Every-	Everyone Everybody	Everything	Everywhere

Read the conversation below to get an idea about how indefinite pronouns are used.

Ana: Ricardo! Wake up! I think someone is in the kitchen!

Ricardo: Nobody is in the kitchen, Ana! Go back to sleep!

Ana: I hear somebody moving around! Can’t you hear someone?

Ricardo: No, I can’t hear anybody!

THE NEXT DAY

Carla: Everybody is still talking about the surprise party for your birthday!

Ana: I know! I told Ricardo somebody was in the living room!

Carla: Everybody was trying to find a hiding place. Nobody thought you were

home yet!

Ana: We got home and went to sleep early. I didn’t think anybody remembered.

Carla: Everybody was surprised when you came downstairs with a baseball bat!

Ana: Haha…yeah sorry about that. I didn’t expect anybody to remember my

birthday!

Someone/Somebody:

The indefinite pronouns “someone” and “somebody” refer to an unknown person or persons.

“Someone” and “somebody” have exactly the same meaning. “Someone” and “somebody” can be used in affirmative sentences and questions. “Someone” and “somebody” are singular.

Example:

·      Someone lost a glove in the parking lot.

·      Can somebody help me?

Everyone/Everybody:

The indefinite pronouns “everyone” and “everybody” refer to all the people or all the people you are talking about.

“Everyone” and “everybody” have exactly the same meaning. “Everyone” and “everybody” can be used in affirmative sentences and questions. “Everyone” and “everybody” are singular.

Example:

·      Everybody likes chocolate!

·      I told everyone that the party starts at 8:00.

No one/Nobody:

The indefinite pronouns “no one” and “nobody” mean no person or no people or none of the people you are talking about.

“No one” and “nobody” have exactly the same meaning. “No one” and “nobody” can be used in affirmative sentences. “No one” and “nobody” are singular.

Example:

·      No one told me to bring my swimsuit.

·      Nobody wants to make a mistake.

Anyone/Anybody:

The indefinite pronouns “anyone” and “anybody” mean an unknown person or unknown people.

“Anyone” and “Anybody” have exactly the same meaning. “Anyone” and “anybody” can be used in negative sentences and questions. “Anyone” and “anybody” are singular.

Example:

·      I didn’t see anyone I knew at the party last night.

·      Does anybody have a pencil I can borrow?

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns reflect back to the subject of a sentence. The English reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Each one can only be used with its personal pronoun counterpart when that personal pronoun is the subject of the sentence:

Personal pronoun	Reflexive pronoun	A sample sentence
I You He she it we you they	Myself Yourself himself herself itself ourselve yourselves themselves	I hurt myself again. You can do it yourself. He enjoyed himself. She helped herself to some candy. It destroyed itself in a few seconds. We found ourselves in a strange. You must clean yourselves up before. They accidentally burned themselves.

If the reflexive pronoun and the personal pronoun are not counterparts, then personal pronouns should be used in the sentence. Look at these examples:

Counterparts	Not Counterparts
I hurt myself again.	I hurt him again. I hurt them again.
He enjoyed himself.	He enjoyed it. He enjoyed them.
They harmed themselves.	They harmed me. They harmed her.

Remember that third-person singular and plural nouns will use the appropriate third-person singular and plural reflexive pronouns:

ü Marta bought herself a new car. The boy cut himself.

ü The alien creature wounded itself with its own claws.

ü The men helped themselves to some beer.

CHAPTER 6

Have something done

One of the ways we use the passive voice is to talk about an action without saying who did it.
For example, we can see this person relaxing because someone else is taking care of his problems! How can we express this meaning with the passive voice?

There is a special passive construction with have:

have + something (the object) + past participle

Example :

·      I have my business taken care of.
(Somebody is taking care of my business.)

·      He has his dog walked.
(Somebody walks his dog.)

In this construction, like in all passive sentences, we need to use the past participle. Remember that for regular verbs, this is the same as the simple past. However, for irregular verbs, the past participle can be different! Be sure to review them and use the correct form of the verb in passive constructions.

We can use this construction in the following cases:

1.    We make someone else do something for us, or we pay someone else to do something for us.

2.    Something negative happens and we have no control over it (something bad happens to us).

First, let's talk about when someone else does something that we ask of them.

Example:

·      Jeremy's car is in terrible condition! He is going to have his car fixed. He hopes it won't be too expensive!

This means that Jeremy will not do the work himself. He will pay a professional mechanic to do the work for him. He will have the work done to his car.

More examples:

·      The living room in Terry's new house is a terrible salmon pink color. She wants to have it painted before she moves in.

·      Lizzy can't talk right now. She's having her hair cut by the barber at the moment.

·      I need to go to the dentist today to have a tooth pulled. I hope it's very fast!

·      Will you have your party catered, or are you going to cook all the food yourself?

·      Emily had her dress sewn by a professional seamstress. She wanted it to look perfect for her special day!

We can use this construction in any of the English verb tenses. All we need to do is use the correct form of have depending on the verb tense we are using. The rest of the construction (object + past participle) remains exactly the same.

Now, let's look at the second meaning of “have + object + past participle”.

We can also use this construction when something negative happens to us when we don't expect it or want it.
Example:

·       The home owner had all his money stolen! The police still haven't caught the mysterious robber.

The owner of the money did not want it to be stolen. This was a negative experience that this person suffered.

More examples:

·      The children are all upset because they had their toys taken away. They wanted to keep playing!

·      The event was supposed to be outside, but look at all this rain! The organizer, Ms. Huffington, is terribly upset because she's had her big event ruined.

·      Bruno is still not back at work. He says he's had his heart broken! It's so terrible that he's going through that divorce.

·      Phil doesn't want to come back to class. He had his feelings hurt last week, and he just isn't enthusiastic about the subject anymore.

    Poor Phil! He suffered a negative experience that he did not expect! He certainly didn't want to be teased!

The Causative Verbs
-- Have --

We use this structure to talk about having something done by a third person. We want something to be done by somebody else.

Have is usually used for having something done by somebody who is naturally doing that job. For example, a mechanic, whose job is to repair cars, repairs your car or a hairdresser cuts your hair.

·      I must have the mechanic check my car. 

·      You should have your hair cut by a hairdresser.

Tense Change: We can change the tense of the have.

·      I have my car washed every Sunday.

·      I must have my car washed every Sunday.

·      I will have my car washed every Sunday.

·      She has her car washed every Sunday.

·      I had my car washed every Sunday.

·      I have had my car washed every Sunday.

·      I can have my car washed every Sunday.

·      I am going to have my car washed every Sunday.

·      I should have my car washed every Sunday.

·      and to use more tenses and modals is possible.

There are two forms of doing causative with "have", passive or active.

   Active Form

Have + somebody +  do (verb 1)  +  something

In active form, we use somebody and  base form of the verb (verb 1) after the verb "have".

Example :

·      Mary had the nurse check her temperature.

·      I must have the mechanic check my car. 

·      We've had a web designer make our website.

·      I have the cleaners wash the floor every day. 

·      She will have Taner paint the house. 

·      Please have your secretary fax me the letter.

   Passive  Form

Have + something + done (verb 3) +  (by someone)

In passive form, we use something and  past participle of the verb (verb 3) after the verb "have".

Example :

·      Mary had her temperature checked by the nurse.

·      I must have my car checked by the mechanic.

·      We've had our website made by a web designer.

·      I have the floor cleaned by the cleaners every day.

·      She will have the house painted by Tom.

·      Please have the letter faxed me by your secretary.

CHAPTER 7

What makes a word a determiner?

As we saw when we looked at the definite and indefinite articles, when a word adds information to a noun but can’t contribute much meaning on its own we call it a determiner.

·      The definite and indefinite articles, some possessive pronouns, possessive nouns, demonstrative pronouns, numbers and quantifiers play this kind of role when positioned before nouns.

·      However, adjectives are not ever called determiners, because they can convey quite a lot of information by themselves.

Quantifiers

Quantifiers are a relative way of suggesting quantity. One way of describing quantifiers is to say that they are indefinite determiners.

Here are some commonly used quantifiers:

all, each, every, few, little

Sentence examples:

o  All executives found responsible for the fraud were jailed.

o  She has seen every movie being shown over summer.

o  I will talk to each person individually.

o  I gave him a few candies.

o  Give me a little money before you go.

All of the words highlighted in red tell us more about their following nouns. That is what makes them determiners.

QUANTIFIERS / DETERMINERS EXERCISES

Choose the appropriate quantifier / determiner.

1.    Can I have a few / some / many butter please?

2.    He has a lot of / many / some money. He owns two large apartments.

3.    Do you want sugar in your tea?

“Just how much / a little / a few ‘please.”

4.    I have a lot of / much / a little DVDs.

5.    I’ll be ready in some / a few / little minutes.

6.    How many / how much time do you need to finish your homework?

7.    How many / how much books have you read in the last two months?

8.    Do you want much / any / few cosmetics from Avon?

9.    We have little / a little / few bread. It is not enough for dinner.

10.               We have much / many / few chairs but we need more.

Answers:

1)   Some

2)   A lot of

3)   A little

4)   A lot of

5)   A few

6)   How much

7)   How many

8)   Any

9)   Little

10)              Many

 

CHAPTER 8

Question tags

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences – particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….

·       He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

·       You work in a bank, don’t you?

... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

·       You haven’t met him, have you?

·       She isn’t coming, is she?

   With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

·      They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

·      They weren’t here, were they?

·      He had met him before, hadn’t he?

·      This isn’t working, is it?

   Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.

·      I said that, didn’t I?

·      You don’t recognise me, do you?

·      She eats meat, doesn’t she?

   With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.

·      They couldn’t hear me, could they?

·      You won’t tell anyone, will you?

   With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

·      I’m the fastest, aren’t I?

Intonation

Question tags can either be ‘real’ questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking for agreement when we already know the answer.

If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.

CHAPTER 9

so + adjective

Examples:

·       “This test is so hard.”

·       “Jack can run so fast.”

·       “The movie was so sad (that) Peter cried.

In both of these sentences, so comes before an adjective (i.e. the words “hard” and “sad”).

Meaning: The meaning of the word “so” in the 1st and 3nd sentence is similar to “very.” “This test is so hard” is similar to “This test is very hard.” In the 3rd sentence, “so” tells you how sad the movie was. How sad was it? Sad enough to make Peter cry. That is the extent (the level of sadness). The movie was “so sad that Peter cried.” That is how sad it was.

such + adjective + noun

Examples:

·       “Lisa is such a beautiful woman .”

·       “I don’t want to swim in such dirty water.

·       “Doug is such a fool.”

“Such” in these sentences has the same meaning as “so” from the sentence “This test is so hard.”  But you cannot use “so” if a noun comes after it. This is a rule. That is why we use “such.” The nouns in the above sentences are woman, water, and fool. Woman and fool are countable singular nouns, so the sentences also need an article (“a”). Water is an uncountable noun, so it does not need an article (a/an or the).

Exception: so + [many/much/few/little] noun

“So” can come before a noun IF the adjectives many/much/few/little also come before the noun. These sentences are correct:

·       “There are so many balloons!” (balloons = countable noun, so we use “many”)

·       “Mike drank so much beer.” (beer = uncountable noun, so we use “much”)

·       “He has so few friends.” (friends = countable noun, so we use “few”)

·       “We have so little time.” (time = uncountable noun, so we use “little”)

Conditional Sentences / If - Clauses Type I , II and III

A.  Conditional Sentence Type 1:

It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: If + Simple Present >>> Future (= will + bare infinitive)

Example:

·      If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

·      If you send this letter now, she will receive it tomorrow .

·      If I do this test, I will improve my English.

·      Peggy will go shopping if she has time in the afternoon.

·      Simon will go to London next week if he gets a cheap flight.

·      If they don’t study harder, they will not pass the exam.

·      If it rains tomorrow, I will not have to water the plants.

B.  Conditional Sentence Type 2 :

It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Past >>> Conditional (= would + bare infinitive).

Example:

·      If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

·      If I were rich, my life would change completely.

·      I would invite all my friends if had a house by the beach.

·      If we had a yacht, we would sail the seven seas.

·      If they told their father, he would be very angry.

·      We would help you if we knew how.

·      My brother would buy a sports car if he had the money.

C.  Conditional Sentence Type 3 :

It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.

Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)

Example:

·      If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

·      If you had studied for the test, you would have passed it.

·      If you had asked me, I would have helped you.

·      If you had spoken English, she would have understood.

·      I would have written you a postcard if I had had your address.

·      If it hadn’t started to rain, we would have walked to the museum.

·      If she had taken the bus, she wouldn’t have arrived on time.

CHAPTER 11 & 12

Direct and Indirect speech Basics

Introduction.

There two ways to convey a message of a person, or the words spoken by a person to other person.

·      Direct speech

·      Indirect speech

Direct speech: Sahil said, “I will give you a pen”.

Indirect Speech: Sahil said that he would give me a pen.

Reporting verb: The verb first part of sentence (i.e. he said, she said, he says, they said, she says,) before the statement of a person in sentence is called reporting verb.

He says, “I am busy.”

Reporting speech , Reported speech

Reported Speech. The second part of indirect speech in which something has been told by a person (which is enclosed in quotation marks in direct speech) is called reported speech. For example, a sentence of indirect speech is, He said that he worked in a factory. In this sentence the second part “he worked in a factory” is called reported speech and that is why the indirect speech as a whole can also be called reported speech.

Fundamental rules for indirect speech.

1.    Use of word “that”: The word “that” is used as a conjunction between the reporting verb and reported speech.

2.    Change in pronoun: The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change.

In following example the pronoun of reported speech is “I” which will be changed in indirect speech into the pronoun (Subject) of reporting verb that is “he”.

Example :

ü Direct speech: He said, “I am happy”

ü Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy.

ü  Direct speech: I said to him, “you are intelligent”

ü Indirect Speech: I said him that he was intelligent.

Change in time: Time is changed according to certain rules like now to then, today to that day, tomorrow to next day and yesterday to previous day.

Examples:

ü Direct speech: He said, “I am happy today”

ü Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy that day.

Change in the tense of reported speech: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to past tense the tense of reported speech will change. If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported speech will not change.

Examples :

ü Direct speech: He said, “I am happy”

ü Indirect Speech: He said that he was happy. (Tense of reported speech changed)

ü Direct speech: He says, “I am happy”

ü Indirect Speech: He said that he is happy.

Table for change in tense of reported speech for present and past TENSES.

No	Direct Speech		Indirect Speech
1	» Simple Present Tenses		» Simple Past Tenses
	+	S + V1(s,es) + o/c	+	S + V2 + o/c
	-	S + Do/Does + V1 + o/c	-	S + Did + Not + V1 + o/c
	?	Do/Does + S + V1 + o/c	?	Did + S + V1 + o/c
	·      Mother said, “I go to the market today” ·      He said, “I write a letter” ·      She said, “he goes to school daily” ·      They said, “we love our country” ·      He said, “he does not like computer”		·      Mother said that she went to the market that day ·      He said that he wrote a letter. ·      He said that she went to school daily. ·      They said that they loved their country. ·      He said that he did not like computer.
2	» Present Continuous Tenses		» Past Continuous Tenses
	+	S + TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + V1 + Ing	+	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + V1 + Ing
	-	S + TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + Not + V1 + Ing	-	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + Not + V1 + Ing
	?	TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + S + V1 + Ing	?	TOBE(Was,Were) + S + V1 + Ing
	·      Andi says, “I am going to school” ·      He said, “he is listening to the music” ·      She said, “I am washing my clothes” ·      They said, “we are enjoying the weather” ·      I said, “it is raining” She said, “I am not laughing”		·      Andi says that he was going to school ·      He said that he was listening to the music. ·      She said that she was washing her clothes. ·      They said that they were not enjoying the weather. ·      She said that she was not laughing.
3	» Present Perfect Tenses		» Past Perfect Tenses
	+	S + Have/Has + V3	+	S + Had + V3
	-	S + Have/Has + Not + V3	-	S + Had + Not + V3
	?	Have/Has + S + V3	?	Had + S + V3
	·      The Teachers said, “We have some tests for you” ·      She said, “he has finished his work” ·      He said, “I have started a job” ·      I said, “she have eaten the meal” ·      They said, “we have not gone to New York.		·      The Teachers said that they have some tests for you ·      She said that he had finished his work. ·      He said that he had started a job. ·      I said that she had eaten the meal, ·      They said that they had not gone to New York.
4	» Present Perfect Continuous Tenses		» Past Perfect Continuous Tenses
	+	S + Have/Has + Been + V1 + ing	+	S + Had + Been + V1 + Ing
	-	S + Have/Has + Been + Not + V1 + ing	-	S + Had + Been + Not V1 + Ing
	?	Have/Has + S + Been + V1 + ing	?	Had + S + Been + V1 + Ing
	·      Sherry said, “I have been reading the book ·      He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock” ·      She said, “It has been raining for three days.” ·      I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007”		·      Sherry said that she had been reading the book ·      He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock. ·      She said that it been raining for three days. ·      I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.
5	» Simple Past Tenses		» Past Pefect Tenses
	+	S + V2 + o/c	+	S + Had + V3
	-	S + Did + Not + V1 + o/c	-	S + Had + Not + V3
	?	Did + S + V1 + o/c	?	Had + S + V3
	·      Otoosan said, “I ate that food yesterday” ·      He said to me, “you answered correctly” ·      John said, “they went to cinema” ·      He said, “I made a table” ·      She said, “I didn’t buy a car”		·      Otoosan said that he had eaten those food the previous day ·      He said to me that I had answered correctly. ·      John said that they had gone to cinema. ·      He said that he had made a table. ·      She said that she had not bought a car.
6	» Past Continuous Tenses		» Past Perfect Continuous Tenses
	+	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + V1 + Ing	+	S + Had + Been + V1 + Ing
	-	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + Not + V1 + Ing	-	S + Had + Been + Not V1 + Ing
	?	TOBE(Was,Were) + S + V1 + Ing	?	Had + S + Been + V1 + Ing
	·      Kudo said, “My parents were goin to my grandma’s house last night” ·      They said, “we were enjoying the weather” ·      He said to me, “ I was waiting for you” ·      I said, “It was raining” ·      She said, “I was not laughing”		·      Kudo said that his parents had been going to his grandma’s house the previous night ·      They said that they had been enjoying. ·      He said to me that he had been waiting for me. ·      I said that it had been raining. ·      She said that she not been laughing.
7	» Simple Future Tenses		» Past Future Tenses
	+	S + Will/Shall + V1	+	S + Would/Should + V1
	-	S + Will/Shall + Not + V1	-	S + Would/Should + Not + V1
	?	Will /Shall + S + V1	?	Would/Should + Not + V1
	·      Conan said, “My family will come from Japan” ·      He said, “I will study the book” ·      She said, “I will buy a computer” ·      They said to me, “we will send you gifts” ·      I said, “I will not take the exam”		·      Conan said that his family would go from Japan ·      He said that he would study the book. ·      She said that she would buy a computer. ·      They said to me that they would send you gifts. ·      I said that I would not take the exam.

CHAPTER 13

FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD
He said, “I will study the book” She said, “I will buy a computer” They said to me, “we will send you gifts” I said, “I will not take the exam”	He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said that I would not take the exam.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” She said,” I will be shifting to new home” He said, “I will be working hard” He said, “he will not be flying kite”	I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. She said that he would not be flying kites.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
He said, “I will have finished the work” She said, “they will have passed the examination” He said, “I will have gone”	He said that he would have finished the work. She said that they would have passed the examination. He said that he would have gone.

 

Indirect speech of imperative sentence.

A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence.
For example,
     •  Open the door.
     •  Please help me.
     •  Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.

Example:

o  Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”

Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.

o  Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”

Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.

o  Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”

Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.

o  Direct speech: He said, “open the door”

Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.

o  Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”

Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.

o  Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”

Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.

o  Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”

Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.

o  Direct speech: The teacher said to him, “Get out”

Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.

CHAPTER 14

While reporting Interrogative Sentences, beginning with Auxiliary Verbs, indirectly, observe the following rules:-

1.    The Reporting Verb - say - is changed into - ask or inquire, demand, etc.

2.    Remove the comma and the inverted commas and start the reported speech with the conjunction - if or whether.

3.    Change the interrogative form of the reported speech into Assertive form (Helping Verb after Subject).

4.    Nouns or Pronouns in the vocative case are treated as objects of their verbs.

5.    Other general rules are observed too.

6.    Observe the following examples:

1)   The Visitor said to me, "Is your father at home?" (Direct)

The visitor asked me if my father was at home. (Indirect)

2)   Netaji said to his men, "Are you ready to die for your country?" (Direct)

Netaji asked his men if they were ready to die for their country. (Indirect)

3)   The host said to the guest, "Would you like to have a cup of tea?" (Direct)

The host asked the guest if he would like to have a cup of tea. (Indirect)

4)   Sohan said, "May I use your pen, Mohan?" (Direct)

Sohan asked Mohan if he might use his pen. (Indirect)

5)   The clerk said to his officer, "Shall I type this letter again, Sir?" (Direct)

The clerk asked his officer respectfully if he should type that letter again. (Indirect)

6)   The crow said, "Are the grapes sour, Mr. Fox?" (Direct)

The crow asked the fox if the grapes were sour. (Indirect)

While reporting Interrogative Sentences, starting with (What, Why, How, When… etc) indirectly,

Observe the following rules:

1.    The Reporting Verb - say - is changed into - ask or inquire - etc. if there is an Object after the Reporting Verb.

2.    If the question begins with wh-word, no conjunction is used to introduce the indirect speech.

3.    Remove the comma and the inverted commas and start the Reported Speech with the Interrogative word itself.

4.    Change the Interrogative Form of the Reported Speech into Assertive form (Helping Verb after Subject).

5.    Nouns and Pronouns in the vocative case are treated as Objects of their verbs.

6.    Other general rules are to be observed too.

Observe the following examples:

1.    The teacher said to Gopal, "Why are you late?"

The teacher asked Gopal why he was late.

2.    Geeta said to Suresh, "Why did you break my slate?"

Geeta asked to Suresh why he had broken her slate.

3.    He said to me, "How have you done this sum?"

He asked me how I had done that sum.

4.    She asked me what my name was.

She said to me, "What is your name?"

5.    Ram asked her where she lived.

Ram said to her, "Where do you live?"

6.    The lady asked Ramesh when he had met her brother.

The lady said to Ramesh, "When did you meet my brother?"